The ascetic practices in Buddhism are called dhutangas or dhutas for short. Dhuta carries the meanings of "fixed, firm, regular, rigid, steadfast" and anga those of "limb, constituent, feature." The word dhuta can be traced back to the Pali/Sanskrit root dhu, which means "to shake off, blow." Dhutangas, then, are practices that help on to shake off the defilements. They are also called duskaracharya, "bitter practices." The Chinese transliteration of dhutanga or dhuta is tou tuo heng, but the ascetic practices are more commonly called ku heng or "bitter practices" in Chinese.

The dhutanga practices deal with the three basic human requisites of clothing, food, and shelter. The dhutangas are usually twelve or thirteen in number and have their origins in recommendations established by the Buddha himself. Two of these practices concern the monk's clothing, five his food, and five (or six) his dwelling. The details of the various lists vary slightly, as do the interpretations of the precise meaning of the Pali/Sanskrit terminology. Dhutangas are mentioned in several Sutras, even though no Sutra text seems to include the full list of a dozen or so practices. Among Theravada scriptures dhutangas are praised especially in Milindapanha ("Questions of King Milinda"), in Visuddhimagga ("Path of Purification") and in Vimuttimagga. Among the Mahayana Sutras, dhutangas are extolled in the Samadhiraja Sutra.

Since everyone needs food, clothing, and a dwelling place, even the most austere cultivator cannot totally renounce these things. Dhutangas were established to help a cultivator lessen his defilements and purify his conduct. The aim is to regulate one's physical appetites and sever one's attachment to an easygoing, pleasurable, or even luxurious existence -- not self-mortification for its own sake. The dhutangas enable the cultivator to live an unencumbered and simple life, and to travel light, both mentally and physically. The Sutra in Forty-two Sections describes the life of left-home disciples who also cultivate the dhutanga practices: "They become shramanas who accept the dharmas of the Way. They renounce worldly wealth and riches, beg for their food, and eat only enough to satisfy their hunger, taking only one meal a day at noon. They pass the night beneath trees, and are careful not to acquire things." Master Hua adds in his commentary: "If you can cultivate these supreme practices of asceticism, you can accomplish your work in the Way."

As the Buddhist community grew in size and both the monks and nuns gained the support of local rulers and devout laypeople, the earlier wandering lifestyle of a monk was replaced by a more sedentary existence spent largely within the confines of a monastery. But even in these settled circumstances the dhutanga practices serve to keep one in touch with the original simplicity of the monks who wandered all over India free of worldly cares and attachments.

Unbeneficial ascetic practices
Various forms of asceticism have been a part of Indian spirituality for over 3000 years. After leaving his father's palace, Shakyamuni Buddha practiced severe asceticism for six years before his enlightenment, eventually eating only a grain of wheat and a sesame seed a day. Finally the Buddha decided that self-mortification was no more conducive to enlightenment than indulgence in sensual pleasures. Neither was in accord with the Middle Way. So he accepted the rice porridge cooked in milk that the maiden Sujata offered him, and thus fortified, sat down beneath the Bodhi tree to achieve Anuttarasamyak-sambodi.

This well-known story of the Buddha rejecting extreme, unbeneficial asceticism has led some people to believe that the Buddha rejected all asceticism. This is not the case. In Buddhism the twelve (or thirteen) ascetic practices are held in high esteem, as they are practices that were recommended by the Buddha himself. The key word here is recommended - the Buddha never made dhutangas compulsory for anyone. It is up to the cultivator himself to decide how many of these practices he wants to observe and for how long. When Buddha's cousin Devadatta in his one-upmanship suggested making the dhutangas an obligatory part of the monks' regimen, the Buddha refused to do so, as Devadatta's motivation in making this suggestion was only to cause a schism within the Sangha.

Master Hua equated unbeneficial ascetic practices with "following the morality (or precepts) of cows and dogs." This referred to deluded non-Buddhist cultivators of ancient India who imitated the behavior of these animals, going naked, sleeping outdoors, eating grass or sometimes even excrement, in hopes of securing rebirth in the heavens by these measures. A verse often quoted by Master Hua emphasizes the importance of proper conduct, of guarding the three karmas of body, mouth, and mind, and of avoiding unwholesome asceticism:

Guard your mouth, collect your thoughts,
And with your body, do not transgress.
Don't cause trouble for any living thing.
Stay far away from useless bitter practices.
A cultivator like this can save the world.

Ascetic practices in Theravada Buddhism

The standard list of dhutangas appearing in Pali sources is thirteen:

1. Pamsukulika-anga (refuse-rag-wearer's practice)
2. Tecivarika-anga (triple-robe-wearer's practice)
3. Pindapatika-anga (alms-food-eater's practice)
4. Sapadanacarika-anga (house-to-house-seeker's practice)
5. Ekasanika-anga ( one-sessioner's practice)
6. Pattapindika-anga (bowl-food-eater's practice)
7. Khalupacchabhattika-anga (later-food-refuser's practice)
8. Arannika-anga (forest-dweller's practice)
9. Rukkhamulika-anga (tree-root-dweller's practice)
10. Abbhokasika-anga (open-air-dweller's practice)
11. Sosanika-anga (charnel-ground-dweller's practice)
12. Yathasantatika-anga (any-bed-user's practice)
13. Nesajjika-anga (sitter's practice)

This section on dhutangas as practiced in Theravada Buddhism is based mostly on chapter II of the Visuddhimagga ("The Path of Purification"), an extensive Pali commentary on the Tripitaka, written by the eminent 5th century Ceylonese monk Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa. The above thirteen practices overlap to some degree and according to Buddhaghosa could be reduced to eight major ones. He considers three of these—nos 4, 5, and 10—principal practices, and five—nos 1, 2, 8, 11, and 13—individual ones. Nevertheless, all thirteen are recommended for a Bhikshu. Only eight are recommended for a Bhikshuni, nos 7-11 being excluded. Buddhaghosa states that nos 7 and 8 are forbidden to Bhikshunis, and since Bhikshunis are not allowed to live without a companion, it would be hard for them to observe nos 9, 10, and 11. Excluding most of the dhutangas concerning dwelling can probably be explained by a concern for the physical safety of the Bhikshunis. Twelve of the thirteen dhutangas can be observed by a Shramenera and seven by a Shramanerika—the practice of wearing three robes would naturally not apply to novices. According to Buddhaghosa, two dhutangas, nos 5 and 6, are proper for lay disciples to follow.

Buddhaghosa also analyzes the dhutangas as having three grades of severity: one can observe each one of the practices in a strict, medium, or mild fashion. For instance, the practice of eating in one sitting can be observed in three different degrees. The strict cultivator eats only the food he has laid his hand on. The medium one can take more as long as the food in the bowl is not finished. The mild one may eat as long as he doesn't get up from his seat.

There are slight variations of the above list of thirteen. In other cases interpretations of the original Pali or Sanskrit differ. For example, dhutanga no 5 can be interpreted in two ways: as eka + asanika (from asana, seat) 'in one sitting', or as eka + asanika (from as, to eat) 'eating once'. Buddhaghosa, however, only discusses the practice of eating in one sitting, and does not mention how many times a day the cultivator should eat.

The dhutangas can be grouped into four divisions that correspond with the four noble usages or practices (catvara aryavamsa). These qualities are:
1.contentment with whatever robes one obtains (dhutangas 1-2), 2.contentment with whatever food one obtains (dhutangas 3-7), 3.contentment with whatever lodging one obtains (dhutangas 8-12) .

The last dhutanga (no 13) is connected with the last quality, 4. delight in contemplation.

Bhikkhu Nyanatiloka mentions how, in the Theravada tradition, each newly ordained monk is advised to be satisfied with whatever robes, almsfood, dwelling, and medicine he gets: "The life of the monks depends on the collected alms as food (...) on the root of a tree as dwelling (...) on robes made from patched-up rags (…) on stale cow's urine as medicine. May you train yourself therein all your life."

The Twelve Ascetic Practices as Observed at the City of Ten Thousand Buddhas

The Buddhist Sanskrit texts list only twelve dhutangas instead of the thirteen found in the Pali tradition; in Sanskrit sources, the dhutanga of "eating within the bowl" has generally been deleted. The twelve dhutangas as they are studied at CTTB are:

1. Wearing rag robes
2. Possessing only three robes
3. Begging for food
4. Consecutive begging
5. Eating only one meal at midday
6. Eating a fixed and moderate amount of food
7. Drinking only plain water after noon
8. Dwelling in an Aranya
9. Dwelling beneath a tree
10. Dwelling in the open
11. Dwelling in a graveyard
12. Always sitting and never lying down.

Venerable Master Hua started observing two of these practices, i.e. eating one meal a day and sleeping sitting up, even before he left the home life at age 19. He also required his left-home disciples to observe eating one meal a day, unless they are very old or have chronic health problems. Many of the Master's lay disciples have also adopted the practices of eating once a day and sleeping sitting up. From this we can see that the dhutanga practices are an integral part of cultivation at CTTB, even though they are not forced on anybody. For Master Hua's left-home disciples, eating one meal a day and always wearing the precept sash is the tradition of the City, "which no one can change", as we remind ourselves in a verse recited daily at the beginning of morning and evening recitation.

The next section summarizes Master Hua's explanations on the benefits of the dhutanga practices. The following quotes have been taken from his commentary on the Dharma Flower (Lotus) Sutra. The section being lectured is the first, introductory chapter of the Sutra, listing the Arhats present in the assembly. These lectures were originally held in Gold Mountain Monastery in San Francisco starting from 1968.

Master Hua explains the benefits of wearing rag robes in the following way: "Wearing rag robes, you yourself do not become greedy for fine clothes or become vain, as often happens when one puts on a new garment. It helps to do away with one's own greed and it also helps to lessen the greed of others. When people see you, they think, 'That old cultivator is dressed in rags, not fine clothes. He's a true adept and I should imitate him'. By means of your example other Bhikshus also resolve to cultivate the Way". The other practice referring to clothing, "possessing' only three robes", is explained as owning only the three robes of a fully ordained Bhikshu, a begging bowl, and a sitting cloth.

The practices connected with obtaining food have not really been observed strictly in China, where going on almsrounds was never socially as accepted as in India and the Southeast Asian countries. In the West going on almsrounds is an even rarer occurrence. Thus Master Hua explains "begging for food" as not cooking one's own food, and being satisfied with whatever food is offered, plain or tasty. The practice of consecutive begging eliminates the possibility of following one's personal preferences in obtaining food. Master Hua says that it "helps rid one of discrimination and allows one to give all living beings an equal opportunity to plant blessings. It is an act of great unselfishness".

In CTTB the dhutanga of "eating within the bowl" of the Theravada list is expressed as "eating a fixed and moderate amount of food”. When one eats only once a day, it is important not to be carried away by greed! Master Hua: "Those who cultivate ascetic practices should reduce the amount of food they consume".

Master Hua generally explains Aranya as a Sanskrit word which means "a still and quiet place". A temple or a monastery would be such a place. Master Hua did not consider it necessary to dwell in a forest. And as he points out, if your own mind is not quiet, living among the remotest mountains is just the same is living in the hubbub of the marketplace. Ultimately, the stillness has to be an inner quality, not something one expects to be provided by the environment.

Master Hua describes dwelling beneath a tree thus: "Cultivators take the earth and sky as their cottage and the four seas as their home. They dwell wherever they happen to be. Dwelling at the base of a tree, one avoids the rain and is very refreshed as well. However, one may only dwell for two nights beneath any one tree. On the third day one has to find another tree. Bhikshus who genuinely cultivate, who are lofty and pure in their practices, wish to avoid recognition and offerings. After two days they leave. No one can find them, and no affinities are established". Master Hua on dwelling out in the open "Very few people have any idea how wonderful such a life-style is". As for dwelling in a graveyard, this is done "in order to contemplate impermanence and understand the ephemeral nature of human life. Sooner or later, we're all going to die (...) Cultivating in the graveyard, you awaken to the doctrine that all is impermanence and you will be able to relinquish your attachments". The practice of dwelling in whatever place provided is omitted from the CTTB list of dhutangas; obviously the other dhutangas concerned with dwelling are thought to include this attitude.

The practice of always sitting and never lying down is sometimes expressed as "ribs not touching the mat". Master Hua: "If you always sit, when you wake up you're all ready to begin cultivating, to sit in Dhyana meditation". We see again how this practice is based on bhavanarama--delight in meditation. Sleeping sitting up, one also sleeps more lightly. In addition, Master Hua has said this practice is effective in lessening sexual desire.

~ To be continued